Based on the documentation provided herein, ReefKeeper International has asked the Commissioner for Planning and Natural Resources of the U.S. Virgin Islands to take appropriate action without delay to create a marine reserve to encompass the area originally proposed as a national marine sanctuary. Management measures should be adopted to prohibit the taking of all marine organisms from within the East End St. Croix Marine Reserve. Anchoring should be prohibited on coral reefs and large vessel traffic avoidance measures should be implemented. Special coastal management and development measures should be developed to prevent shore-based activities from adversely impacting the fragile coral reefs of the east end of St. Croix.
The marine waters off the East End of St. Croix need to be given priority consideration for the creation of a marine reserve. Stresses and impacts are beginning to degrade the site, prompting the need for immediate action. If the area is not protected, it will be forced to undergo needless and irreparable damage.
The marine areas surrounding and including Lang Bank, Tague, Great Pond, Jacks, and Isaacs bays, East and Isaacs points, Buck Island, and Green Cay were proposed as a National Marine Sanctuary in 1983 but still remain undesignated. The site was nominated based upon its well developed coral reef ecosystem, high productivity, and high diversity.
The area also includes the Buck Island National Monument, which is managed by the National Park Service and includes 700 acres of submerged land with great ecological and aesthetic significance. Lang Bank, along with a number of other areas between Lang Bank and the shore, were named areas of high biological productivity by the Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program. Lang Bank has been identified as a Critical Area by the Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program.
The bank barrier reef off the east end of St. Croix is among the best developed system in the Caribbean and the most extensive on the Puerto Rico/Virgin Island shelf. The area is relatively unimpacted by sedimentation and pollution since most of the coastal area remains undeveloped.
However, this great coral reef ecosystem is threatened by human activities. Over-fishing has depleted the stocks of many top predators, as well as many of the herbivorous fishes. Fishers and scientists report declining catches but increasing effort. The use of fish traps damage the coral reefs by scraping and breaking the hard corals that form the structure of the reef, as well as damaging other reef inhabitants such as sponges and gorgonians.
"No-take" marine reserves have proven to be a useful management tool in many parts of the world. These reserves allow for the rebuilding of fish populations and the protection of habitat within their boundaries. An increase in abundance of fishes outside these areas is also seen (the "spill-over effect").
Fishers as well as other boaters and large ships can damage the coral reefs by dropping anchors on the reef structure or running aground. The implementation of management regulations for boats and ships, including the prohibition of anchoring on corals and large vessel traffic rules, would prevent much of this damage.
Although the east end of St. Croix remains relatively undeveloped, shore-based activities can have profound adverse impacts on coral reef ecosystems. Coastal management and development measures that prevent impacts from construction activities, dredging and filling, and wastewater discharge would help keep the coral reefs off the east end of St. Croix healthy.
The east end of St. Croix contains diverse marine and coastal communities which form a productive and significant ecosystem important for the sustenance of the local fishing, tourism, and recreation industries. Well-developed reef systems, highly productive algal ridges, extensive submerged banks, and seagrass beds are all present within a small area (48 nm 2 ). The area displays high diversity and abundance of reef fish and invertebrates including numerous species of algae, plants, and invertebrates and over 150 species of fish (Wells, 1988). It also supports several endangered and threatened species such as Green Sea Turtle, Hawksbill Sea Turtle, Leatherback Sea Turtle, Piping Plover, Brown Pelican, Sperm Whale and the Humpback Whale.
The Buck Island National Monument, which is managed by the National Park Service, includes 700 acres of submerged land (Wells, 1988). The coral reefs off Buck Island have great ecological and aesthetic significance to the area. The water here is extremely clear due to a lack of freshwater run-off, and visibilities often exceed 100 ft. The shallow nature of much of the bank barrier reef makes this area highly accessible to snorkelers via underwater trails.
Lang Bank along with a number of other areas between Lang Bank and the shore, were named areas of high biological productivity by the Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program (Anon, 1992). Lang Bank has been identified as a Critical Area by the Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program.
Terrestrial protection is given to Green Cay, which has been designated as a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wildlife Refuge (Wells, 1988). There is also a territorial state park at Cramer Park.
The entire 48 nm 2 of proposed marine reserve was listed in 1983 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on the National Marine Sanctuary Program Final Site Evaluation List (Federal Register, 1983). This list identified sites for NOAA to evaluate as candidates for potential national marine sanctuaries.
A draft management plan was prepared for a larger area (approximately 102 km 2 ) known as the St. Croix Coral Reef Area of Particular Concern (APC) (Wells, 1988). The proposed marine reserve lies entirely within this APC. No specific management measures are currently in place for this APC.
There are numerous well developed patch, bank, and fringing reefs in the area, which provide food and shelter for thousands of species in rich coral reef communities (Anon, 1992). Seagrass beds and algal ridges are also located within the area. The bank barrier reef is the largest on the Puerto Rico/Virgin Island shelf and one of the best developed reef systems in the Caribbean.
The reefs around Buck Island National Monument are good examples of the complexity of the coral reefs at the east end of St. Croix (Wells, 1988). In the lagoon area, an extensive patch reef system is present. Many of these patch reefs reach the surface. In the underwater trail area, complex back-reef topography of the barrier reef is present, with 6-9 feet of vertical relief. Elkhorn (Acropora palmata) and staghorn (A. cervicornis) stands dominate the fore reef areas. Species such as fire coral (Millepora spp.), brain corals (Diploria spp.) boulder star corals (Montastrea spp.), lettuce corals (Agaracia spp.), and cactus corals (Isophyllia spp.) are present, making the area quite diverse.
Other coral species seen in the waters off the east end of St. Croix include finger corals (Porites spp.), starlet corals (Siderastrea spp.), and maze corals (Meandrina spp.) (Wells, 1988). Older, more developed reefs are present as well as reefs at earlier stages of development. At least 11 separate reef areas can be identified within the boundaries of the proposed marine reserve (Anon, 1992).
These well developed reefs are a major source of income for the people of St. Croix due to the large amount of tourists they attract, especially those around Buck Island. The area also supports an artisanal fishery for conch, whelk, and spiny lobster (Anon, 1992).
Although the coral reefs at the east end of St. Croix are in relatively good health, especially when compared to those in many other areas of the Virgin Islands and the Caribbean, human threats remain and are growing. Of primary concern is the extreme depletion of fish and invertebrate populations.
Fish stocks in the U.S. Virgin Islands have declined considerably within the past thirty years. Thirty years ago, twelve fish traps pulled twice a week would yield 200 to 300 pounds of fish a week with 60% of them being grouper, snapper, and goatfish. In 1987, the same number of traps yields only 40 to 50 pounds with 7 to 10% grouper, snapper, or goatfish (Skov, T., 1987). Quantitatively, the catch-per-unit effort (CPUE) has dropped an average of 5% per year between 1975 and 1987 (Based on page 22 of Appledoorn et al., 1992). This means that the fishermen have to employ a larger number of fish traps each year to catch the same number of fish.
This fact is documented in Proceedings of the Conference on Fisheries in Crisis held on September 24-25, 1987 at Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas. It was shown that while net fishing effort had increased 25-50%, there was no significant increase in landings. Additionally, the average size of the fish caught decreased by as much as 20%. However, the most alarming fact is that the fishery is now predominantly supported by pre-spawning individuals. The fish are not allowed to mature enough to reproduce, therefore causing a logarithmic decrease in the amount of fish harvested the following season (de Graaf and Moore, 1987).
A major concern at the conference was to identify the main cause for the declining fish stocks. It seems, however, that a combination of factors are responsible for the degradation of the Virgin Island fishery. Loss or degradation of nursery and living habitats, harvesting of pre-spawning individuals, and too many fishermen have been identified as significant factors requiring regulation if the fish stocks are going to be preserved. In one year alone, 1986-1987, the amount of licensed fishermen increased from 406 to 530 (Beets, 1987). However, the amount of fishermen is not nearly as important as recognizing the amount of traps the fishermen use. Some say they have and use as much as 1,500 traps, while others are content with using 300-400 (de Graaf and Moore, 1987). The number of fishermen multiplied by the number of traps they use add up to an alarming reason for concern.
Since the conference, fishing in the Virgin Islands has not improved. Although a stock assessment for the reef fish of the U.S. Caribbean has not been conducted since 1992 (Appledoorn et al., 1992) anecdotal reports from fishers as well as the opinion of scientists all reveal that reef fish stocks have continued to decline during the last decade. Changes must be made now to stop the decline and help rebuild these depleted fish populations.
Habitat destruction by fish traps, the predominant fishing gear used in the Virgin Islands, is well known and documented. A study of fish traps in the U.S. Virgin Islands (Quandt, 1999) revealed the damage that does occur from the use of fish traps near coral reefs. Forty percent of the fish traps observed during the study were resting on reef substrate that contained coral. The reef building corals sustained the greatest amount of damage from the fish traps, with an average of almost 5% damaged by scrapes or broken by the traps. Damage to gorgonians, sponges, and zoanthids was also recorded.
In its generic amendment addressing Essential Fish Habitat, the U.S. Caribbean Fishery Management Council stated:
"Impacts to habitat can occur if traps are set on top or dragged into coral reefs or other fragile habitats. Traps set into seagrass beds can abrade seagrass particularly in areas of moderate to heavy surge." (USCFMC, 1998)
The Council recommended that fish traps not be placed on top of corals or in shallow seagrass beds. Further, the Council recommended that the traps not be dragged along the bottom during retrieval.
The use of "no-take" marine reserves is not new. In fact, the U.S. Caribbean Fishery Management Council just created the Hind Bank Marine Conservation District southwest of St. Thomas to protect reef fish spawning aggregations and habitat in that area. Evidence abounds in the scientific literature of successful "no-take" marine reserves around the world (see summary in RKI, 1999).
Benefits that can be anticipated from the creation of an East End St. Croix "no-take" Marine Reserve include the following:
No single event damages more coral reef than the grounding of a large ship. Not only are hard corals killed over a vast area, but the reef structure itself is often totally leveled. One of the most important components of coral reefs is the complex topography that creates many different habitats for a wide range of marine organisms. This topography can be completely lost in a grounding incident.
After a ship grounds, large clouds of pulverized coral and bottom sediments billow from the ship and settle upon other areas of the coral reef. The corals in these areas are completely smothered and subsequently die. Grounding scars are visible for many years after a large ship has crashed. The loss of diving and fishing opportunities is tremendous.
Documentation of grounding destruction now abounds in the scientific literature. In August 1984, the M/V Wellwood sat atop Molasses Reef in the Florida Keys for almost two weeks before it could be pulled off the reef. Massive destruction of the reef framework and large-scale coral death were observed (Hudson & Diaz, 1988). 1,282 sq. meters of reef sustained 70-100 percent loss in hard coral cover. 644 sq. meters of underlying reef framework was fractured.
Unfortunately, groundings are not an uncommon event. In St. Maarten, ships have run aground at a portion of Proselyte Reef known as Mike's Maze two years in a row (December 1997 and December 1998) (pers. comm. Andy Caballero, St. Maarten Marine Park). Surveys of the reef conducted after both groundings demonstrate that additional damage from other groundings was present.
In December 1997, the Norwegian Cruise Line's S.S. Leeward ran into Cuevones Reef while the ship was maneuvering out of port in Cancun, Mexico, destroying about 450 square meters, approximately 10% of the reef. The ship had left port without the assistance of a local port pilot familiar with the locations of the coral reefs.
Ship anchors and anchor chains are extremely large and massive, often weighing as much as an automobile. Direct damage to corals results when these heavy anchors are placed on top of or come in contact with corals. Not only is the anchor itself a threat, but the heavy anchor chains damage corals as they sway with the waves and currents. The anchor and anchor chain often completely destroy corals as well as suspending coral debris and other sediments, resulting in the smothering of additional nearby corals.
In the Virgin Islands National Park, damage from the anchoring of ships is well documented. For example, in 1988 the 440-foot cruise ship Wind Spirit dropped anchor on a coral reef (Allen, 1992). A path approximately 128 meters long and 2-3 meters wide was cut through the coral reef. Additional damage was caused by the suspended reef sediments.
Divers in Grand Cayman directly observed the substantial damage that an anchor chain and anchor can do to a coral reef. In February 1985, the 525-foot MV Starward was anchored on the south side of the island (Allen, 1992). Although the seas were calm, the divers observed the anchor chain swinging over a wide area, totally pulverizing over 2,100 square meters of coral reef. An additional 1,000 square meters was moderately damaged but later died. Other nearby reefs were adversely impacted from the billowing clouds of destroyed coral.
As boats traverse areas only slightly deeper than their hull, the prop wash will resuspend bottom sediments, resulting in a decrease in water quality with increased turbidity. This turbidity can decrease light levels, resulting in the decreased growth and eventual death of corals. Also, the resuspended sediments will eventually settle back to the bottom, smothering and killing corals on which they land.
Appropriate shipping regulations to keep ships away from the fragile coral reefs off the east end of St. Croix will minimize these adverse impacts. Such regulations could include no-shipping zones or no-anchoring zones.
Small boats also causes more than their fair share of degradation to coral reef ecosystems. Direct physical impacts from the dropping and dragging of anchors and accidental groundings directly destroy reefs in a dramatic way.
Boating has played a major role in the degradation of the reefs off the Florida Keys. A study was conducted at Biscayne National Park concerning the effects of recreational activities on the park's patch reefs (Tilmant and Schmahl, 1982). Studies of six groundings showed that the main causes were attributed to poor attention to safe navigation practices, lack of knowledge of local waters, and operating at night (Skinner and Jaap, 1983).
Although groundings by small boats may not destroy a significant amount of corals in relation to total coral cover, they do take out the largest and the most magnificent coral colonies which are probably the oldest within the community. Such destruction disrupts the community structure and diversity by driving away large amounts of fish and invertebrates that rely on the cover provided by such massive corals (Tilmant, 1987).
In addition to grounding, reefs also suffer from damage due to anchors. An estimated 20% of an extensive zone of staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) was found destroyed within the Dry Tortugas Atoll at Fort Jefferson National Monument (Tilmant, 1987). As many as 30 boats have been seen anchored in the Dry Tortugas on one reef at the same time (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979). This phenomenal amount of boating activity has prompted the installation of mooring buoys in order to keep anchors off the reefs. In addition to alleviating anchor damage, the buoy system also works to distribute divers among a variety of reefs to avoid damage due to overuse.
The minimization of adverse impacts to the coral reefs off the east end of St. Croix by boaters can be achieved through a number of regulations addressing physical impacts. These regulations could include a prohibition on anchoring on coral reefs and the installation of mooring buoys.
Although the east end of St. Croix is relatively undeveloped, the continuing pressures of a booming population and tourism only increase the chances that more and more of this land will become developed in the near future. Activities on the land and beaches, if not done with great care, has been demonstrated to have a profound negative impact on coral reefs.
Increased coastal development is fueled by the rapid population growth and economic pressures. Population increases call for increased development not only in housing, but industry as well. These development activities can created a large amount of sedimentation and eutrophication within the lagoon and bay systems and can affect the overall productivity of the area.
Recent studies have shown that sedimentation due to runoff from terrestrial construction activities have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems downstream. Activities such as causeway construction, boat pier construction, road construction, and land clearing for developments have negative effects on the marine environment. These include: displacement, siltation, current modification, stagnation inshore, shading, and changes in the quality of freshwater runoff. Studies done on Puerto Rican coral reefs revealed negative impacts on the reef community as well (Acevedo and Morelock, 1988). Coral cover and species diversity were greatly reduced near the source of terrigenous sediment off the coast of Puerto Rico (Acevedo and Morelock, 1988).
Some of the effects reported by Acevedo and Morelock include dominance by the coral Montastrea cavernosa, a well known sediment-tolerant species (Lasker 1980; Loya 1976); significant reductions in the populations of sediment-sensitive Acropora palmata, along with the presence of a characteristically deep water species of coral (Agaricia lamarcki) within just 15 meters of the ocean surface. These conditions provide significant evidence that increased sedimentation inhibits light penetration, therefore altering the integrity of the coral reef ecosystem.
Dredge and fill operations causes an increase in turbidity and sedimentation inhibiting the growth of seagrasses and corals. Dredge and fill operations have been known to cause the complete eradication of coral colonies and their characteristic communities (Salvat, 1987). Not only is the extraction site affected, but surrounding ecosystems are also negatively impacted by the suspension of fine sediments caused during and after dredging (Salvat, 1987). The effects are similar to those associated with sedimentation from terrestrial sources discussed previously.
Coral communities have to expend large amounts of energy to rid themselves of the sediment that falls on them. Such energy has to be taken from other areas of their energy budget including feeding and reproduction (Salvat, 1987). In addition to the destruction of existing organisms, this fine silt, once settled, is so fine that few, if any, organisms are capable of colonization. Other factors inhibiting colonization include the release of heavy metals, hydrogen sulfide, and other organic detritus (Salvat, 1987).
Salvat also mentions how dredging sands rich in reducing organic materials, such as hydrogen sulfide, results in dirtier, malodorous water and reduction in dissolved oxygen content which obviously affects all marine life not adapted to living in an anaerobic environment. Later, the unconsolidated sediment restricts the colonization of coral planulae larvae and other sessile organisms (Salvat, 1987). This causes the site to remain deserted and uncolonized and therefore it never recovers.
Some examples of areas where reef degradation was due to sedimentation from both construction activities and dredging include:
Johnston Atoll: reduction of living coral, 40% reduction in fish and echinoderms, and blue-green algae colonization (Brock, Heukelem, Helfrich, 1966) Fanning Island: coral coverage reduced from 62% to 31% (Roy and Smith, 1970) Moorea, French Polynesia: destruction of corals, modification of species composition, decrease in species diversity, disruption in reef stability (Salvat, et al., 1979)
Johnston Atoll: reduction of living coral, 40% reduction in fish and echinoderms, and blue-green algae colonization (Brock, Heukelem, Helfrich, 1966)
Fanning Island: coral coverage reduced from 62% to 31% (Roy and Smith, 1970)
Moorea, French Polynesia: destruction of corals, modification of species composition, decrease in species diversity, disruption in reef stability (Salvat, et al., 1979)
Another consequence resulting from the development of the coastal zone comes from sewage pollution in the marine environment (Marszalek, 1987). Sewage pollution raises the levels of nutrients in the water giving rise to increased algal production, otherwise known as eutrophication. Eutrophication usually results in the alteration of the composition of the benthic community structure towards much less desirable species. On coral reefs, composition is altered by the intrusion and dominance of algae thriving from the abundance of nutrients. This diminishes species diversity and the overall productivity of the ecosystem.
Marszalek also notes the variety of sources emitting wastes that eventually find themselves in the oceans to negatively affect marine ecosystems due to various different properties. Some of these pollutant sources are domestic sewage which introduces nutrients and pathogens harmful to both marine organisms and man; agricultural wastes which contribute nutrients in the form of artificial fertilizers as well as toxins from herbicides and pesticides, and industrial run-off which contributes heavy metals and other toxic compounds (Marszalek, 1987).
An example of where sewage discharge destroyed a thriving coral reef community can be found in Kanehoe Bay, Hawaii (Marszalek, 1987). Studies conducted in 1972 revealed that 99.9% of the corals near the discharges in the southeast sector of the bay were eliminated (Maragos, 1972). Much of the damage occurred as changes in community structure from coral to plankton and zooplankton grazers and benthic algae, Dictyosharea cavernosa (Marszalek, 1987). This benthic algae quickly outgrew the coral colonies, causing the once luxurious coral reefs to become monotonous mats of fleshy algae (Marszalek, 1987).
It is clear that the threats from coastal development to the coral reefs off the east end of St. Croix cannot be ignored. Special coastal management and development measures need to be put into place before there is extensive development at this end of St. Croix, not after the damage to the coral reefs is done. These measures should include the designation of "no-dredge" zones.
The time to protect the coral reefs off the east end of St. Croix is now while they are still in good condition, rather than waiting until they are degraded and declining. Overfishing is continuing and is not expected to slow. Any further delay in protecting those resources from current and future impacts may result in the loss of this precious ecosystem forever.
ReefKeeper has therefore requested that an East End St. Croix Marine Reserve be established to protect the fragile coral reef ecosystems. The recommended site, as illustrated in the attached figure, would be approximately 48 nm 2 in size, and include Tague, Great Pond, Jacks, and Isaacs bays; East and Isaacs points; Buck Island; and Green Cay. The site is the same as was included on the Site Evaluation List of the National Marine Sanctuary Program.
ReefKeeper has further requested of the USVI Department of Planning and Natural Resources that the entire East End St. Croix Marine Reserve be designated as a "no-take" area, where the removal of all marine organisms would be prohibited. Anchoring on coral reefs should be prohibited with the reserve and large vessel avoidance measures should be enacted to prevent damage from groundings. Finally, we have requested that special coastal management and development measures be passed, including "no-dredge" areas, to prevent adverse impacts of development to the coral reefs off the east end of St. Croix.
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