SOUTHEAST ST. THOMAS
MARINE PROTECTED AREA
U.S. Virgin Islands
| REEFKEEPER GOAL: | To establish a marine protected area around the coral reefs off Southeast St. Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands. |
| WHY: | To protect these threatened coral reefs from coastal development impacts and pollution. |
|
How to Help |
TO SUPPORT REEFKEEPER'S POSITION:
| CONTACT: | Beulah Dalmida-Smith, Commissioner |
| AGENCY: | Department of Planning and Natural Resources |
| ADDRESS: | 8000 Nisky Center - Suite 231 St. Thomas, USVI 00802 |
| FAX: | |
| E-MAIL: | |
SOUTHEAST ST. THOMAS
MARINE PROTECTED AREA
U.S. Virgin Islands
IN DEPTH
Southeast St. Thomas
Marine Reserves and Wildlife Sanctuaries
Request for Extension of Boundaries
and Adoption of Regulations
Abstract
The marine areas surrounding and including Compass Point Pond,
Cas Cay and Mangrove Lagoon, and the St. James Islands were designated
in 1994 as Marine Reserves and Wildlife Sanctuaries by the Government
of the Virgin Islands of the United States. These designations
recognized the value of these areas' diverse marine and coastal
communities, which form the basis for the Southeast St. Thomas
marine ecosystem's productivity. These areas were also included
within the larger proposed Southeastern St. Thomas National Marine
Sanctuary, which was nominated in 1983 but still remains undesignated.
Cas Cay/Mangrove Lagoon is also recognized as a unique area because
it contains the largest strand of mangroves left in the U.S. Virgin
Islands. In spite of the no-take and no-dumping regulations now
in force in these Marine Reserves, coastal development impacts
are continuing to degrade the coral reefs and other marine habitats
found within the Reserves. Additional measures need to be urgently
implemented if the outstanding resource values that prompted the
reserve designations and national marine sanctuary nomination
are to be preserved from loss and degradation. Therefore, ReefKeeper
INternational respectfully requests the expansion of the existing
Reserves to include the Southeast St. Thomas marine areas bounded
within a line running from Long Point to Buck Island to Capella
Island to Dog Island to Great St. James Island to Cabrita Point.
We also request the adoption of additional management measures
to protect these outstanding marine resources from the chronic
pollution and sedimentation now impacting them from the coast
of Southeastern St. Thomas. Any further delay in protecting these
resources from these coastal impacts may result in the loss of
this precious ecosystem forever.
Prepared by
Carlos Rivero and Alexander Stone
Submitted by
ReefKeeper International
2809 Bird Avenue -- Suite 162
Miami, Florida 33133
phone (305) 358-4600
fax (305) 358-3030
November 20, 1996
Executive Summary
The marine areas off Southeast St. Thomas need to be given priority consideration for evaluation and granting of expanded marine reserve status if the same outstanding resource values that prompted the 1994 designation of 3 territorial marine reserves within the site are to be preserved. Stresses and impacts are continuing to degrade the site considerably, prompting the need for immediate action. If the area is not protected, it will be forced to undergo needless and irreparable damage.
The marine areas surrounding and including Compass Point Pond, Cas Cay and Mangrove Lagoon, and the St. James Islands were designated in 1994 as Marine Reserves and Wildlife Sanctuaries by the Government of the Virgin Islands of the United States. These designations recognized the value of these areas' diverse marine and coastal communities, which form the basis for the Southeast St. Thomas marine ecosystem's productivity. Cas Cay/Mangrove Lagoon is also recognized as a unique area because it contains the largest strand of mangroves left in the U.S. Virgin Islands.
These areas were also included within the larger proposed Southeastern St. Thomas National Marine Sanctuary, which was nominated in 1983 but still remains undesignated. This larger proposed sanctuary would encompass the area from Long Point to Buck Island to Capella Island to Dog Island to Great St. James Island to Cabrita Point. The site supports many uses including: commercial fishing, industry, commercial and private development, and recreation. It is also a natural habitat for threatened and endangered species such as the Hawksbill, Green, and Leatherback Sea Turtles, Humpback and Sperm Whales, Brown Pelican and the Roseate Tern.
Recent analysis of the area shows a dramatic amount of degradation due to increased unregulated development in the watershed adjacent to the area, causing large amounts of sediment and pollution to flow directly into waters of Mangrove Lagoon and Benner Bay within the proposed sanctuary boundaries, and within the existing marine reserves.
Other forms of degradation resulting from human use and abuse are:
-- increasing algal invasion and eutrophication due to large amounts of nutrients flowing into the coastal area from a variety of sources including agriculture,
-- erosion of deforested land,
-- direct sewage treatment plant discharges, and
-- an alarming decline in all commercially viable fish species.
Based on the documentation provided herein, ReefKeeper International
asks the Commissioner for Planning and Natural Resources of the
U.S. Virgin Islands to take appropriate action without delay to
expand the existing territorial marine reserves to encompass the
area originally proposed as a national marine sanctuary, and to
adopt additional management measures to protect these outstanding
marine resources from the chronic pollution and sedimentation
now impacting them from the coast of Southeastern St. Thomas.
Why Southeast St. Thomas Marine Areas
Deserve to be Protected
Southeast St. Thomas has diverse marine and coastal communities which form a productive and significant ecosystem important for the sustenance of the local fishing, tourism, and recreation industries. The site displays high diversity and abundance of reef fish and invertebrates including: 76 species of algae, 46 species of molluscs, 15 sponge species, 58 echinoderms, numerous cnidarian, annelid, and crustacean species, 243 fish species, 5 marine turtle species, 100 shore bird species, and three whale species (Wells, 1988). It also supports several endangered and threatened species such as the Brown Pelican, Roseate Tern, Hawksbill Sea Turtle, Leatherback Sea Turtle, Green Sea Turtle, Sperm Whale and the Humpback Whale.
Jersey Bay's Mangrove Lagoon is considered a unique area since it is the largest original strand of mangroves left in the U.S.V.I. (NOAA 1983). In addition to being a unique mangrove forest, Mangrove Lagoon and Benner Bay are important fish nursery grounds (Olsen, 1979), with over 80% of the reef fish in the area being juveniles (Wells, 1988). The seagrass beds, primarily Halimeda and Thalassia (Wells, 1988), provide shelter for spiny lobster, mollusc, finfish and other reef fish juveniles. These shallow water ecosystems are the basis for providing the 1.7 million lbs of fish and 122,000 lbs of lobster harvested every year by the local fisheries.
Mangrove Lagoon, Benner Bay, and Vessup Bay, including the
east end of St. Thomas, are recognized as Areas of Particular
Concern by the U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Planning and
Natural Resources under the Coastal Zone Management Program. The
marine areas surrounding and including Compass Point Pond, Cas
Cay and Mangrove Lagoon, and the St. James Islands were designated
in 1994 as Marine Reserves and Wildlife Sanctuaries by the Government
of the Virgin Islands of the United States.
Extensive Coral Reef Communities
There are numerous well developed fringing reefs in the area, with some located relatively close to the mainland. Long and Cabrita Points, Packet Rock, Cow and Calf Rocks, Birsk Island, Capella Island, Great St. James and Little St. James, Dog Island and Cowpet Bay all have extensive reef systems.
In addition to these areas, coral reefs also occur within the entrances to Mangrove Lagoon and Jersey Bay between Patricia and Cas Cay. The shallow fore-reef of this area is dominated by Acropora palmata (elkhorn coral), along with a variety of other corals including massive formations of Siderastrea (star coral), Montastrea (star coral), Diploria (brain coral) with some A. cervicornis (staghorn coral), Agaricia (lettuce coral) and Millepora (fire coral), (Wells, 1988). In deeper waters, gorgonian forests are found. These are characterized by Pterogorgia sea whip, Pseudogorgia sea plume, Eunicea sea rod, Plexaurella sea rod and sponges.
These well developed reefs are a major source of income for
the people of St. Thomas due to the large amount of tourists they
attract. There are sixteen dive sites within the area which are
frequented by tour operators at a rate greater than 4,000 charter
boat trips a year (Wells, 1988). In addition to the diving oppurtunities,
the aesthetic and recreational appeal of the water make it a major
tourist attraction providing for 20% of all Virgin Islands boating
activity (Wells, 1988). The offshore islands receive about 1000
boats each year, with Birsk Island receiving about 6000 visitors
a year (Wells, 1988).
Research
The site's proximity to land makes it prime for research and education. It has been the focus of research activities in the past and remains an exceptional area for future studies. The important contribution the site makes to the regional economy makes it a good place to study the effects of human resource consumption.
The Caribbean Research Institute has two labs in the area. Studies have been done on sharks and turtles through one of CRI's labs (Wells, 1988). In addition to these facilities, a special laboratory was constructed at Nazareth Bay to study the communication of dolphins (Wells, 1988).
A laboratory on Benner Bay is now used by the Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs for research and monitoring. Some of their studies were done on whelks and conchs, fisheries, water qualtiy, whale and turtle movements, and an environmental impact statement for Long Point (Wells, 1988).
In total, some 20 research reports, monitoring documents and
development impact statements have been produced for the area
prior to 1983 (Wells, 1988).
Human Impacts on the Site
Current human impacts include: sewage pollution from anchored boats, sewage treatment plants, local septic tanks and shore establishments. Releases of toxic trace metals in the leachate from the municipal sanitary landfill and discharges of wastes cause high turbidity and low water transparency, low oxygen content, an abundance of coliform bacteria causing a health hazard, high nutrient pollution loads, and shoaling of the lagoon floor with formation of a black mud blanket. Mangrove habitat has been disturbed, inshore clam and fishing grounds have been lost, vitality of bottom biota has been seriously reduced.
Development and Upland Runoff
The intense development occurring in the upper drainage basin of Turpentine Run coupled with the destruction of the naturally occurring mangrove filters during the construction of the Clinton Phipps Race Track has increased the potential for flash flooding and rapid transport of upland pollutants directly into the lagoon (Towle, 1985).
In 1968, the Clinton Phipps Horse Racing Track was relocated to its present position leaving its former location available for a new hospital. The relocation involved filling in the mangrove vegetated delta, thus eliminating the cleansing action of the sediment trapping prop root systems by diverting the even flow of water from the upland areas into a single channel. This led to extensive introduction of sediments and pollutants into the lagoon (Island Resources Foundation, 1993). Because most watershed sediment reaching the lagoon remains suspended, water clarity is chronically degraded (Wells, 1988).
Increased coastal development is induced by the rapid population growth on the island. Population in the drainage basin adjacent to the proposed sanctuary reached 15,000 in 1980; this is roughly 30% of the population of the island (Wells, 1988). This large percentage of the population calls for increased development not only in housing, but industry as well. For this reason, much of the area is developed for tourism, industry, and housing. These development activities have created a large amount of sedimentation and eutrophication within the lagoon and bay systems and have affected the overall productivity of the area. By 1984, the area had nearly 500 vessel owners, an active marine industry, thousands of low-income public housing residents, middle-income single family dwellings, apartment-dwellers and owners, and hundreds of commercial establishments (Wells, 1988).
Prior to stresses from development, this area supported extensive
populations of juvenile lobsters (Panulirus argus) and
crabs (Wells, 1988). Coastal development, as well as development
in the drainage basin, have already substantially altered Mangrove
Lagoon and remain a significant threat to the site's pristine
nature. Run-off caused by the steep slope of the island and the
erodable nature of the soils causes sedimentary deposition within
Benner Bay and Mangrove Lagoon (Wells, 1988). Construction activity
causes building sites to be disturbed for extended periods of
time with little or no concern for sediment control (Island Resources
Foundation, 1993).
Recent studies have shown that sedimentation due to runoff from terrestrial construction activities have detrimental effects on the marine ecosystems downstream. Activities such as causeway construction, boat pier construction, road construction, and land clearing for developments have negative effects on the marine environment. These include: displacement, siltation, current modification, stagnation inshore, shading, and changes in the quality of freshwater runoff. Studies done on Puerto Rican coral reefs revealed negative impacts on the reef community as well (Acevedo and Morelock, 1988). Coral cover and species diversity were greatly reduced near the source of terrigenous sediment off the coast of Puerto Rico (Acevedo and Morelock, 1988).
Some of the effects reported by Acevedo and Morelock include dominance by the coral Montastrea cavernosa, a well known sediment-tolerant species (Lasker 1980; Loya 1976); significant reductions in the populations of sediment-sensitive Acropora palmata, along with the presence of a characterisitically deep water species of coral (Agaricia lamarcki) within just 15 meters of the ocean surface. These conditions provide significant evidence that increased sedimentation inhibits light penetration, therefore altering the integrity of the coral reef ecosystem. In conclusion, "the Ponce reefs affected by terrigenous sediments showed decreased coral cover, lower species diversity, and a shallower limit of coral growth (Acevedo and Morelock, 1988).
In the late 1960's, turtle grass dominated Jersey and Benner
Bays and the Mangrove Lagoon (McNulty et al., 1968; Tabb and Michel,
1968) these have now been replaced by algae and mud (Olsen and
Damman, 1971). Deteriorating water quality has caused the formation
of a loose semi-liquid sediment, covered by the spermatophyte
Halophila baillonis, a species characteristic of stressed
environments (Wells, 1988). This description charac-terizes over
90% of the inner lagoon, extending through Bovoni Passage into
deeper parts of Benner Bay (Wells, 1988).
Dredging and Filling
Dredge and fill operations have caused an increase in turbidity and sedimentation inhibiting the growth of seagrasses and corals. In Mangrove Lagoon, the area between the mainland and Patricia Cay was dredged to make a small beach on the northside of Long Point (Wells, 1988). Artificial beaches were created at Cowpet using sand from Nazareth Bay (Wells, 1988). Most of these beaches are already eroded and the pits formed through the dredging are a constant source of sediment within the water column.
Dredge and fill operations have been known to cause the complete eradication of coral colonies and their characteristic communities (Salvat, 1987). Not only is the extraction site affected, but surrounding ecosystems are also negatively impacted by the "suspension of fine sediments caused during and after dredging (Salvat, 1987)." The effects are similar to those associated with sedimentation from terrestrial sources discussed previously.
Coral communities have to expend large amounts of energy to rid themselves of the sediment that falls on them. Such energy has to be taken from other areas of their energy budget including feeding and reproduction (Salvat, 1987). In addition to the destruction of existing organisms, this fine silt, once settled, is so fine that few, if any, organisms are capable of colonization. Other factors inhibiting colonization include the release of heavy metals, hydrogen sulfide, and other organic detritus (Salvat, 1987).
Salvat also mentions how dredging sands rich in reducing organic materials, such as hydrogen sulfide, results in dirtier, malodorous water and reduction in dissolved oxygen content which obviously affects all marine life not adapted to living in an anaerobic environment. Later, the unconsolidated sediment restricts the colonization of coral planulae larvae and other sessile organisms (Salvat, 1987). This causes the site to remain deserted and uncolonized and therefore it never recovers.
Some examples of areas where reef degradation was due to sedimentation from both construction activities and dredging include:
-- Johnston Atoll: reduction of living coral, 40% reduction in fish and echinoderms, and blue-green algae colonization (Brock, Heukelem,Helfrich, 1966)
-- Fanning Island: coral coverage reduced from 62% to 31% (Roy and Smith, 1970)
-- Moorea, French Polynesia: destruction of corals, modification
of species composition, decrease in species diversity, disruption
in reef stability (Salvat, et al., 1979)
Water Pollution
Another consequence resulting from the development of the coastal zone comes from sewage pollution in the marine environment (Marszalek, 1987). Sewage pollution raises the levels of nutrients in the water giving rise to increased algal production, otherwise known as eutrophication. Eutrophication usually results in the alteration of the composition of the benthic community structure towards much less desirable species. On coral reefs, composition is altered by the intrusion and dominance of algae thriving from the abundance of nutrients. This diminishes species diversity and the overall productivity of the ecosystem.
Marszalek also notes the variety of sources emitting wastes that eventually find themselves in the oceans to negatively affect marine ecosystems due to various different properties. Some of these pollutant sources are domestic sewage which introduces nutrients and pathogens harmful to both marine organisms and man; agricultural wastes which contribute nutrients in the form of artificial fertilizers as well as toxins from herbicides and pesticides, and industrial run-off which contributes heavy metals and other toxic compounds (Marszalek, 1987).
Wastewater treatment plants discharging partially treated wastes into the lagoon system off Southeast St. Thomas have caused a great deal of nutrient loading and given rise to algal invasion of the nearshore area. This is evident in the channels entering Mangrove Lagoon near Patricia and Cas Cays. They were once covered with live corals, but are now inhabited by Halimeda Penicillus algae, (Grigg et al., 1971), Thalassia (Tabb and Michel, 1968), and a fine calcium carbonate sand (Olsen, 1979).
There are at least four operating sewage treatment plants in the Southeast St. Thomas coastal area which rarely perform to design specifications (Island Resources Foundation, 1993). According to a study conducted by the U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources, these plants are considerably complex to operate and have a high rate of breakdown. In addition to the frequent mechanical and operational problems, periodic and often extended electrical outages cause large amounts of untreated sewage to pass directly into the coastal environment (USVI, 1991).
In 1992, a compliance inspection report documented unpermitted discharges at all four of the sewage treatment plants located in the area. Self-monitoring reports also indicated violation of three additional standards associated with untreated and undertreated sewage discharge: fecal coliform counts, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Total Suspended Solids (USVI, 1992). Increased nutrient enrichment is evident in the mangrove root system where large amounts of algae are found growing on the prop roots.
A new sewage treatment plant on Long Point would discharge 1.2 million gallons of effluent per day via a pipeline near Packet Rock at a depth of 60 feet. The coral reef ecosystem surrounding Packet Rock will be adversely affected by increased nutrient loading due to the effluent discharge.
An example of where sewage discharge destroyed a thriving coral
reef community can be found in Kanehoe Bay, Hawaii (Marszalek,
1987). Studies conducted in 1972 revealed that 99.9% of the corals
near the discharges in the southeast sector of the bay were eliminated
(Maragos, 1972). Much of the damage occurred as changes in community
structure from coral to plankton and zooplankton grazers and benthic
algae, Dictyosharea cavernosa (Marszalek, 1987). This D.
cavernosa benthic algae quickly outgrew the coral colonies,
causing the once luxurious coral reefs to become monotonous mats
of fleshy algae (Marszalek, 1987).
Power Plants and Landfills
The local Water and Power Authority has plans to build a power plant on Long Point (Island Resources Foundation, 1993). Currently, the existing power plant in the Turpentine drainage basin cannot supply the large amount of electricity demanded by the growing population. This causes power outages in the area and, as mentioned before, discharges of untreated sewage into the coastal environment.
The construction and operation of power plants has been known to have a negative effect on the marine communities adjacent to them. The most significant effect resulting from the construction of power plants comes from the sedimentation produced by dredging for the fill and building materials. The operation of power plants results in the discharging of thermal effluents which have been shown to have sublethal effects on coral colonies (Gomez and Junio, 1982). Temperatures 3-4o C above ambient have caused reduced growth rates and bleaching (McCain, Coles, and Peck, 1975). Also, toxic effluents are produced from the use of biocides to prevent biofouling, from petroleum fuel spills, and coolant leaks. The passing of seawater through the cooling systems may also introduce heavy metals such as copper, cadmium, and nickel (Neudecker, 1987).
There is also a landfill currently in the area. The Bovoni
landfill, which covers 15-18 acres on Long Point is the receiving
site for all of the solid waste collected on St. Thomas and St.
John (Island Resources Foundation,1993). This site is near capacity
and has already reached maximum horizontal growth. The landfill
is also a repository for hazardous wastes such as waste oils,
household chemicals, and hospital wastes. Together, the variety
of chemical wastes become, a poisonous leachate that invades the
groundwater and eventually the lagoon system.
Recreational Impacts
Recreational use has caused more than its fair share of degradation. The seagrass beds of Cas and Patricia Cays are a maze of drag lines where boats have run aground (Wells, 1988). Buck, Capella and the St. James Islands have been affected by careless anchoring (Wells, 1988). Spearfishing was once prevalent among Cabrita Point and Packet Rock, but these are now seldom visited due to the lack of target species (Wells, 1988). Increased unregulated recreational use may destroy conch and lobster habitat (Anon. 1982). The conch bed between Great and Little St. James is under heavy recreational pressures (Wells, 1988).
Major concerns regarding conservation and tourism derive from the impacts that boating, fishing, and diving have on coral reefs. Boaters contribute to the degradation of reef systems by pollution from discharging of wastes and garbage in addition to direct anchor damage. Also, accidental groundings directly destroy reefs in a much more dramatic way. Fishing methods such as spearfishing and hook-and-line may result in the over-harvest of selected species causing the disruption of the community structure due to predator removal and the occassional miscellaneous lost gear impacts. Uneducated divers are often the cause of direct destruction to corals. Uneducated divers, unaware of their actions kick, trample, and break corals without realizing the damage they are causing (Tilmant, 1987).
Boating has played a major role in the degradation of the reefs off the Florida Keys. A study was conducted at Biscayne National Park concerning the effects of recreational activities on the park's patch reefs (Tilmant and Schmahl, 1982). Studies of six groundings showed that the main causes were attributed to poor attention to safe navigation practices, lack of knowledge of local waters, and operating at night (Skinner and Jaap, 1983).
Although groundings may not destroy a significant amount of corals in relation to total coral cover, they do take out the largest and the most magnificent coral colonies which are probably the oldest within the community. Such destruction disrupts the community structure and diversity by driving away large amounts of fish and invertebrates that rely on the cover provided by such massive corals (Tilmant, 1987).
In addition to grounding, reefs also suffer from damage due to anchors. An estimated 20% of an extensive zone of staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) was found destroyed within the Dry Tortugas Atoll at Fort Jefferson National Monument (Tilmant, 1987). As many as 30 boats have been seen anchored in the Dry Tortugas on one reef at the same time (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979). This phenomenal amount of boating activity has prompted the installation of mooring buoys in order to keep anchors off the reefs. In addition to alleviating anchor damage, the buoy system also works to distribute divers among a variety of reefs to avoid damage due to overuse.
Direct damage is not the only threat produced from boating activity. Discharge of sewage wastes along with garbage and leaks from fuel and oil reservoirs also contribute to the destruction of the reef area. Chemical pollutants such as gasoline, kerosene, and diesel have been documented to cause sub-lethal and lethal effects to corals (Birkeland, Reimer, and Young, 1973). It has been found that at low concentrations these chemicals inhibit the reproductive capability of the colony and at chronic levels promote the destruction of the community as a whole (Tilmant, 1987).
Although regulations adopted for the 3 marine reserves designated
within the Southeast St. Thomas site in 1994 attempt to address
the recreational use impacts outlined above, a larger and just
as sensitive area not included within those 3 smaller reserves
is still vulnerable to those impacts.
Fish Depletion
Studies conducted on heavily fished areas have concluded that overfishing has had a considerable impact on commercially viable fish populations, in addition to the alteration of reef community structure by shifting dominance to less commercially important fish (Tilmant, 1987).
Fish stocks in the U.S. Virgin Islands have declined considerably within the past twenty years. Twenty years ago, twelve fish traps pulled twice a week would yield 200 to 300 pounds of fish a week with 60% of them being grouper, snapper, and goatfish. Today, the same number of traps yields only 40 to 50 pounds with 7 to 10% grouper, snapper, or goatfish (Skov, T., 1987). Quantitatively, the catch-per-unit effort (CPUE) has dropped an average of 5% per year between 1975 and 1987 (Based on page 22 of Appledoorn et al., 1992). This means that the fishermen have to employ a larger number of fish traps each year to catch the same number of fish.
This fact is documented in Proceedings of the Conference on Fisheries in Crisis held on September 24-25, 1987 at Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas. It was shown that while net fishing effort had increased 25-50%, there was no significant increase in landings. Additionally, the average size of the fish caught decreased by as much as 20%. However, the most alarming fact is that the fishery is now predominantly supported by pre-spawning individuals. The fish are not allowed to mature enough to reproduce, therefore causing a logarithmic decrease in the amount of fish harvested the following season (de Graaf and Moore, 1987).
A major concern at the conference was to identify the main
cause for the declining fish stocks. It seems, however, that a
combination of factors are responsible for the degradation of
the Virgin Island fishery. Loss or degradation of nursery and
living habitats, harvesting of pre-spawning individuals, and too
many fishermen have been identified as significant factors requiring
regulation if the fish stocks are going to be preserved. In one
year alone, 1986-1987, the amount of licensed fishermen
increased from 406 to 530 (Beets, 1987). However, the amount of
fishermen is not nearly as important as recognizing the amount
of traps the fishermen use. Some say they have and use as much
as 1,500 traps, while others are content with using 300-400 (Berry,
1987). The number of fishermen multiplied by the number of traps
they use add up to an alarming reason for concern.
Additional Protection for
Southeast St. Thomas Marine Areas is Needed Now
Rapid degradation of the Mangrove Lagoon/Benner Bay ecosystems due to intense unregulated development, overfishing, and water pollution is evident. Increased eutrophication within the mangrove, seagrass, and coral communities degrading species diversity and promoting the alteration of the ecosystem as a whole.
For this reason, long-term monitoring, protection and management of Southeast St. Thomas is required and must begin as soon as possible if the site's natural biological integrity is to be preserved. Human activities requiring management action within an expanded Southeast St. Thomas Marine Reserve and Special Management Area are:
1. Chronic or catastrophic siltation and sedimentation of coral and other significant bottom habitats.
2. Massive inputs of eutrophication-inducing, nutrient-laden waste water treatment effluents.
3. Solid waste and pollutant dumping over coral reefs, seagrass beds and recreational areas.
4. Lack of use or availability of mooring buoys in heavily visited recreational areas.
5. Depletion of both predator and herbivorous algal grazer fish species.
6. Non-existent supervision or on-site enforcement.
7. Lack of an integrated educational plan for the bioconservation of Southeast St. Thomas.
Direct and indirect human activities are responsible for the
degradation of the marine ecosystems found within Southeast St.
Thomas. It is only through rapid and prioritized action that further
damage can be prevented.
Management Recommendations
The following recommendations for the Southeast St. Thomas Marine Reserve and Special Management Area are adapted from Mangrove Lagoon/Benner Bay Area of Particular Concern (APC) and Area of Preservation and Restoration (APR) A Comprehensive Analytical Study , produced by the Coastal Zone Management Program of the Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources, September 21, 1993. These recommendations include:
Expanding the 3 smaller existing Marine Reserves to include all of the Southeast St. Thomas marine areas bounded within a line running from Long Point to Buck Island to Capella Island to Dog Island to Great St. James Island to Cabrita Point, and adopting additional management measures to protect the outstanding marine resources within that expanded reserve from the chronic pollution and sedimentation now impacting them from the coast of Southeastern St. Thomas is essential to the continued survival of these marine habitats. Any further delay in protecting those resources from current and future coastal impacts may result in the loss of this precious ecosystem forever.
Literature Cited
Acevedo, R. and J. Morelock, 1988. Effects of terrigenous sediment influx on coral reef zonation in southwestern Puerto Rico. In Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Australia, 1988, 2: 189-194
Appledoorn, R., J. Beets, J. Bohnsack, S. Bolden, D. Matos, S. Meyers, A. Rosario, Y. Sadovy and W. Tobias. 1992. Shallow Water Reef Fish Stock Assessment for the U.S. Caribbean. NOAA Tech Memo NMFS-SEFSC-304. DOC/NOAA/NMFS/SFSC Miami, FL 33149. 70 pp.
Anon., 1982. Marine Sanctuary Evaluation List: Request for Public Comment. Chelsea International Corporation/NOAA, Washington, D.C.
Beets, J.P. Profile of a Collapsing Fishery: V, IN de Graaf, J. and Moore, D. eds., 1987. Proceedings of the Conference on Fisheris in Crisis. September 24-25, 1987; Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas. 147 pp.
Birkeland, C., A.A. Reimer, and J.R. Young, 1973. The effects of oil on tropical shore natural communities in Panama. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Final Report Proj. 18050 EFU: 173 pp.
Bohnsack, J.A., 1982. Effects of piscivorous predator removal on coral reef fish community structure. In: G.M. Caillet and C.A. Simenstad (eds.). Gutshop '81: Fish food habit studies. Wash. Sea Grant Pub. Univ. Wash., Seattle: 258-267
Bohnsack, J.A., 1983. Resiliency of reef fish communities in response to reduced harvesting pressure. Final Rept. for NOAA postdoc. resch. award No. NA 81 AA-D00102: 38 pp.
Brock, V.E., W. Van Heukelem, and P. Helfrich, 1966. An ecological reconnaissance of Johnston island and the effects of dredging. Tech. Rept. No. 5, Hawaii Marine Laboratory: 56 pp.
de Graaf, J. and D. Moore, eds. 1987. Proceedings of the Conference on Fisheries in Crisis. September 24-25, 1987; Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas. 147 pp.
Grigg, D.I., R.P. Van Eepoel, and R.W. Brody, 1971. Water qualtiy and environmental status of Benner Bay - Mangrove Lagoon, St. Thomas. Water Pollution Report 10, Caribbean Research Institute, College of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas.
Island Resources Foundation, 1993. Mangrove Lagoon/Benner Bay Area of Particular Concern (APC) and Area of Preservation and Restoration (APR) A Comprehensive Analytical Study. Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Office of Coastal Zone Management. Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas
Lasker, H.R., 1980. Sediment rejection by reef corals: the roles of behavior and morphology in Montastrea cavernosa (Linnaeus). J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 47: 77-87
Loya, Y., 1976. Effects of water turbidity and sedimentation on the community structure of Puerto Rican Corals. Bulletin of Marine Science 26(4): 450-466
Maragos, J.E., 1972 - A study of the ecology of Hawaiian reef corals. Ph.D. thesis. University of Hawaii: 290 pp.
Marszalek, D.S. - 1987 - Sewage and Eutrophication. In Human Impacts on Coral Reefs: facts and recommendations, B. Salvat ed., Antenne Museum E.P.H.E., French Polynesia: 77-90
McCain, J.C., S.L. Coles, and J.M. Peck, 1975. The biological impact of the Honolulu Generating Station. Sea Grant Tech. Report UNIHI-SEA GRANT-TR-76-01.
McNulty, J.K., W.B. Robertson, and B.F. Horton, 1968. Departmental study team report and recommendation on proposed new jet airport, St. Thomas, USVI. Unpublished Repor